Roberts Bartholow

A 2-inch diameter skull defect in a 30-year-old patient named Mary Rafferty provided the site for one of the nineteenth century’s most controversial medical procedures. In 1874, physician Roberts Bartholow used needle electrodes to apply electrical currents directly to her exposed dura, aiming to observe how brain stimulation influenced motor functions within the human body.

Early Career and Military Service

Born in 1831 in New Windsor, Maryland, Bartholow pursued his education at Calvert College, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts in 1848 before completing his medical degree at the University of Maryland, Baltimore in 1852. Following a period working in Baltimore clinics, he enlisted in the United States military in 1857. During the American Civil War, he served as an assistant surgeon and managed multiple military hospitals across the West, including Fort Union in New Mexico, between 1861 and 1864. During this era, he authored A Manual of Instructions for Enlisting and Discharging Soldiers, which became a standard tool for identifying recruit health issues.

Clinical Practice and Academic Tenure

After departing the military, Bartholow relocated to Cincinnati, Ohio. His career involved working across various medical systems, including allopathic and homeopathic practices, eventually establishing the city's largest private practice. He joined the faculty of the Medical College of Ohio in 1864, where he held the chair of materia medica starting in 1869. He later accepted a professorship at Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia in 1879. Beyond his teaching duties, he served as president of the American Neurological Association in 1881 and joined the American Philosophical Society in 1880.

The Physiological Method

Bartholow advocated for the physiological method, which integrated experimental research directly into clinical practice. This departure from pure empiricism allowed him to study biological mechanisms through animal models, despite facing significant opposition from anti-vivisectionists. His publications during this time included On Spermatorrhoea in 1866, The Principles and Practice of Disinfection in 1867, and A Manual of Hypodermic Medication in 1869. These works provided guidance on reproductive system complications and medication administration via syringe, cementing his role as a researcher who bridged the gap between basic laboratory science and bedside care.

Neurological Research and Ethical Criticism

His research into brain excitability sought to localize motor functions using electrodes, drawing inspiration from David Ferrier's work on non-primates. In 1874, he published Experimental investigations into the functions of the human brain, documenting the stimulation of Mary Rafferty. Following the procedure, the patient suffered a massive seizure and died. The experiment prompted sharp criticism from the American Medical Association due to ethical concerns regarding the invasion of the brain. Despite the controversy, his work remained influential in the development of neurology and the study of cerebral functions.

Fast facts

• Born: 1831, New Windsor, Maryland
• Died: 1904, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
• Education: Calvert College, University of Maryland
• Notable Book: A Manual of Hypodermic Medication (1869)
• Professional Role: President, American Neurological Association (1881)
• Academic Posts: Medical College of Ohio, Jefferson Medical College

Questions readers ask

What were the primary criticisms of Bartholow's research?

Critics challenged his use of human subjects, specifically Mary Rafferty, for experimental electrical stimulation and his reliance on animal experimentation.

What was the significance of the 1874 Rafferty experiment?

It provided early observational data on how electrical current applied to the human cortex affects motor function, though the patient died shortly after.

Achievements

• Notable work: list of forms of electricity named after scientists
• Held posts at Thomas Jefferson University and University of Cincinnati